Types of Abuse

Abuse: There are many different types of abuse and it can be defined as mistreating another human with the intention to be cruel or violent or cause harm. It can be described as the misuse or mishandle of something. It occurs often and usually done to acquire a nasty but satisfying effect. Dating abuse:This occurs during an unhealthy relationship between two people, usually teenagers, when one person wants control or power in the relationship. It occurs repeatedly and usually aggressive and commanding behavior allows the recipient to gain dominance. Profile of the abuser:o Usually has a past of abuse in the familyo May have been abused when they were youngero They may not cope wello Have a high intake of drugs or alcoholo Usually have characteristics of being:? Jealous? Manipulative ? Controlling? Narcissistic? Disconnected? Hypersensitive Profile of the victim: o Usually blames themselveso Goes into depressiono Low self-esteemo Suicidal thoughtso Socially isolatedo May have anxiety Dating abuse examples:Emotional or psychological abuse Making someone feel like they not important my calling them names or treating them like a child by ordering them around, yelling at someone. Insulting, swearing, ignoring, threating or isolating victim. Physical abuse Hurting someone in a way that leaves bruises, using a firearm against victim, doesn't allow victim to eat or sleep. Chocking, pushing, pinching, biting, pulling your hair, locking you out of the house.Sexual abuse Doesn't allow the victim birth control, forces the victim to have sex with them, forces the victim to engage in pornography and prostitution. Unwanted touching, forces you to engage in sexual behavior that hurts you, refusing you to use safe sex practices. Controlling behavior Is overprotective over the victim to a point where they don't trust the victim, isolates victim from family and friends. Overprotective, jealous, creates accusations, criticize or stalks victim.Use of social media encourages dating abuse1. It's addictive:Research shows that people who constantly use social media and their phones to a point where it becomes addictive or excessive, abandon their personal life, show signs of mood modification, and are mentally preoccupied. This shows that people who use social media increasingly can neglect their partners which may cause their partners to leave them which can cause them to become angry and abuse. It can cause them to have mood swings and therefore take it out on their partners when they get enraged.2. It triggers sadness:Social media isolates the abuser and an increase use of it can make the abuser feel lonely even though their partner is with them. This can make them abuse their partner as they could feel like thei r partner isn't supporting them. Sometimes as people get sadder they tend to take it out on others to feel satisfied or content and this could mean taking it out on their partners.3. It can lead to jealousy:Studies have shown that excessive social media users have triggers of jealousy. Abusers can feel jealous when their friends dating lives are more extraordinary than theirs and could become furious that their partners aren't as exciting and therefore take it out on their partner. Abusers are often overprotective and if their partner is engaging with someone else on social media and they see it could infuriate the abusers which leads to violence. Use of cellphones increase dating violenceTeenagers are usually able to get excess to the internet or if not they all have phones. This makes them an easy target to dating violence as their abuser can threaten them anywhere at any time. This means that the abuser can control and degrade the victim just by a click of a few buttons over their mobile phones. Abusers can harass their victims through online texts which may dehumanize the victim and cause them to feel abused. Abusers may also sexually harass their partners online by asking for nude pictures or forcing them to engage in unwanted, awkward sexting. Abusers often message their partners constantly not because they care but because they need to feel like they in control and make the victim intimidated. Abusers can often hack their partners social media sites to know what they up to, they often post private messages or pictures, they can post cruel things about their partner online, they can track their partners location and they can stalk. By doing this they intimidate their partner and will often abuse if their partner is, according to them, doing something wrong. Warning signs of dating abuseo Your partner threatens youo Isolates you from your friends and familyo Dehumanizes youo Your partner makes you feel guilty to get their wayo Your partner is aggressive towards youo Your partner forces you to do uncomfortable thingso You are blamed for everything that goes wrongo You are called names by your partner and belittled by themo Your partner calls and messages you excessivelyo Your partner touches you in public without your permissiono Your partner exceeds your physical boundarieso Your partner controls your reproductive choiceso Your partner has explosive tempero You are forced into having sex with your partner How to escape an abusive relationship?: 1. Talk to someone about your situation 2. Set aside money and slowly move your belongings out 3. Pack an emergency bag 4. Plan your escape route and where you will live 5. Leave when your partner is not at home 6. Don't take the blame 7. Write everything you experience down 8. Warn and tell your friends and family 9. Block the abuser on any social sites 10. Seek physiological help 11. Move on and regain your value and dignityOrganizations that can help Legal Aid South Africa offers legal assistance. To locate your nearest Justice Centre, call 0861 053 425 or visit www.legal-aid.co.za.Rape Crisis offers free confidential counselling to people who have been raped or sexually assaulted. Call 011 642 4345.SAPS 10111University campus law clinics also offer legal assistance. Powa provides counselling, both telephonically and in person, temporary shelter for and legal help to women who have experienced violence.Call 011 642 434Tears foundation Founded in 2012, this non-profit organization provides a database of medical, legal and psychological services available in South Africa to help those who have been raped or survived sexual abuse.Call 010 590 5920Part 2: 55 Tyrone avenue Parkview Johannesburg 21935th February 2018 Dear: Johanna I've heard about your experience with your violent boyfriend and I am extremely apologetic that you had to go through such an ordeal. I cannot even bear to imagine the pain you had to go through. The suffering you have experienced is traumatizing and has happened solely because your boyfriend wanted control in the relationship. Your boyfriend was extremely jealous, controlling and hypersensitive which is usually the characteristics of an abuser. I as your best friend had noticed earlier how distant and melancholic you were, but I had no idea that it would link to your boyfriend. Your boyfriend was always so loving, caring and protective over you but then again that was probably the first stage of dating abuse. Your boyfriend used physical abuse on you when he hit you and physiological abuse on you when he made you feel guilty about leaving him and threatened to kill you. Johanna, you are currently in the third stage of violence wherein your partner is threating you and exceeding your limits and boundaries. You cannot take any more of this, its traumatizing and upsetting. You need to take measures into place such as blocking him on any social media profiles so that he may have no contact with you. You should also inform your family as to the situation so that they are aware and if anything is to happen they know where you are. You should also keep a journal and write all these experiences down so that in case for future references you want to charge him you have proof. You should seek physiological help, so that you have a better understanding of your situation and so you can move on with dignity and value. Most importantly though you should not take the blame for his actions. Johanna, you are not his punching bag and you should know that no one deserves to treat you in a way that he has treated you. You should know that you are worthful and beautiful and if anyone cannot see that and appreciate it then they shouldn't be around you. Always remember that you are not a victim you alive and that makes you a survivor and don't be ashamed of this story others will be inspired.

Guilt and Shame

The society of traditional  Japan  was long held to be a good example of one in which shame is the primary agent of  social control. The first book to cogently[citation needed]  explain the workings of the Japanese society for the Western reader was  The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. This book was produced under less than ideal circumstances since it was written during the early years of  World War II  in an attempt to understand the people who had become such a powerful enemy of the West. Under the conditions of war it was, of course, impossible to do  field research  in Japan.Nevertheless, depending on the study of members of that culture who were  available for interview and study in the West, namely war prisoners at detention centers, as well as literary and other such records pertaining to cultural features,  Ruth Benedict  drew what some regard[who? ]  as a clear picture of the basic workings of Japanese society. Her study has been challenged and is not relied upon by anthropologists of Japan today. Contemporary  Western society  uses shame as one modality of control, but its primary dependence rests on  guilt, and, when that does not work, on the  criminal justice  system.Paul Hiebert  characterizes the shame society as follows: Shame is a reaction to other people's criticism, an acute personal chagrin at our failure to live up to our obligations and the expectations others have of us. In true shame oriented cultures, every person has a place and a duty in the society. One maintains self-respect, not by choosing what is good rather than what is evil, but by choosing what is expected of one. Personal desires are sunk in the collective expectation. Those who fail will often turn their aggression against themselves instead of using violence against others.By punishing themselves they maintain their self-respect before others, for shame cannot be relieved, as guilt can be, by  confession  and atonement. Shame is remov ed and honor restored only when a person does what the society expects of him or her in the situation, including committing suicide if necessary. (Hiebert 1985, 212) guilt society  is one in which the primary method of  social control  is the inculcation of feelings of  guilt  for behaviors that the society defines as undesirable. It involves an implicit judgment on the being (rather than just the behavior) of the individual: â€Å"You are an  evil  person if you would do such-and-so. It also involves creating the  expectation  of punishment now (when the behavior fails to be kept secret) and/or in the hereafter. One of the interesting features of many such societies is that they inculcate feelings of guilt for feelings and/or impulses that the individual cannot help but feel. Where a  shame societymight tell its members that sexual interactions are to be hidden from general view or knowledge, a guilt society may tell people that they are guilty or sinful for me re  sexual desire.A prominent feature of guilt societies is the provision of sanctioned releases from guilt for certain behaviors either before the fact, as when one condemns sexuality but permits it conditionally in the context of marriage, or after the fact. There is a clear opportunity in such cases for authority figures to derive power, monetary and/or other advantages, etc. by manipulating the conditions of guilt and the forgiveness of guilt. Paul Hiebert characterizes the guilt society as follows: Guilt is a feeling that arises when we violate the absolute standards of  morality  within us, when we violate our conscience.A person may suffer from guilt although no one else knows of his or her misdeed; this feeling of guilt is relieved by confessing the misdeed and making restitution. True guilt cultures rely on an internalized conviction of sin as the enforcer of good behavior, not, as shame cultures do, on external sanctions. Guilt cultures emphasize punishment and forgi veness as ways of restoring the moral order; shame cultures stress self-denial and humility as ways of restoring the social order. (Hiebert 1985, 213) GUILT, SHAME,  and embarrassment are forms of social control.Whether these are cast in evolutionary, psychological, or cultural terms, we should not lose sight of that basic function. These emotions may not always be portrayed in these terms, but that is how they have evolved and become embedded in our cultural beliefs and practices. It is in this context that we should raise the question: Are there shame cultures as opposed to guilt cultures, with corresponding differences in how people within them experience guilt and shame? In American culture (and Western cultures enerally), personal identity is conceived of as being independent and autonomous. Society is seen as a collection of self-contained individuals who are held responsible for their own behavior. One's interests are best served by allowing maximum freedom and responsibili ty in choosing one's objectives. Moral precepts are based on conceptions of justice. Even when these are tempered by interpersonal obligations, the focus remains on individuals who must balance their responsibilities between the self and significant others.THE PRIMARY  moral obligation is to avoid harming significant others. It is when you cause harm, or are unjust, that you feel guilty. Being responsive to the needs of others is desirable, but is not a moral duty. Individuals are free to follow their inclinations within the limits of the law and in consideration of the rights of others. Their obligations to others are defined in negative terms—what they should not do—rather than as positive duties of what they should do. Whereas the failure to uphold justice is a vice, the failure to be beneficent to others is only a lack of moral virtue.By contrast, in Asian contexts, one's identity is defined in relation to the group one belongs to, typically the family. Whereas i n the West, a person would be known as Jane or John Doe, in the East, they would be identified as members of the Doe family. In her study of Indian Hindus, psychologist Joan Miller found that the primary basis of determining moral conduct was not justice but a person's duties to significant others. Among Americans, moral duty is imposed on the individual to constrain that individual's actions.For Hindus, doing one's duty meant both meeting one's obligations as well as realizing one's own nature. Therefore acting benevolently toward others was not an aim secondary to considerations of justice, nor was it a matter of acting above and beyond the call of duty—fulfilling one's social duty was the primary purpose of moral conduct. These differences lead to contrasting ways of determining what is moral. For instance, if there is no other way to help a friend in need, it would be ethical for an Indian to steal but unethical for an American to do so even if it means failing to help th e friend.These differences are not absolute; nonetheless, twice as many Indians as Americans would give priority to interpersonal considerations over abstract ethical principles. Moreover, Indians were more prone than Americans to make contextual exceptions (where the morality of an action depends on the nature of the relationship and the circumstances of the case), whereas Americans took a more absolute view about an action being right or wrong, irrespective of other considerations. The moral objective in the West, as noted above, is to avoid doing wrong and is more objective; in the East, it is to do what is right and is more subjective.Similar considerations apply in other Asian cultures. In China, the family is the â€Å"great self. † One starts by literally owing one's life to one's parents. One's primary obligation in life is to serve and protect social ties, not pursue personal goals. Similarly, while Americans place a high premium on self-reliance, the Japanese favor interdependence and harmonious integration within the group. Individuals in both groups are highly competitive, but in different ways. Americans want to  get ahead  of others; the Japanese are concerned with not falling behind; instead of pushing ahead, they line up sideways.The personal boundaries of Americans have been compared to the hard shell of an egg; those of the Japanese, to an egg's soft internal membrane. Erich Lessing/Art Resource This individualistic-versus-interdependent basis of moral judgment helps clarify the problematic distinctions between shame and guilt cultures. Instead of these designations explaining differences in such a way that makes one culture seem morally superior to another, they explain cultural differences as the outcome of serving different needs.In the Western context of individualism, guilt, with its emphasis on autonomy, provides a better moral foundation for guiding individuals who are responsible for themselves. With a lesser sense of respo nsibility for others, there is less need for shame as a form of social control. By contrast, in the Asian cultural context, where maintaining harmony in relationships is most valued, shame is a more effective means of moral control. Since personal boundaries extend beyond the individual, it becomes more difficult to generate guilt. When someone does wrong, it is not only the person but everyone related to that person who shares in the guilt.Therefore, shame in Asian cultures fulfills some of the same functions of social control that guilt does in the West and vice versa. These considerations are important to our understanding of differences in the ways guilt and shame are perceived in Western and Eastern religion. . . . For instance, the centrality of shame in Confucianism has led to the general impression that Confucian China is a shame society, and hence is ethically less developed. [Religion scholar] Mark Berkson [MA '92, PhD '00] has raised cogent arguments that this characteriz ation is not valid.Confucian ethics, far from being ethically less well developed, offers much to others to learn from. While generally framed in East/West terms, these differences between guilt and shame can also be seen within Western culture itself in historical perspective. Homeric heroes in ancient Greece were driven by the twin virtues honor and fame. In their warlike society such virtues were best manifested on the battlefield. The self-esteem of heroes like Achilles, Odysseus, and Oedipus depended on their standing in the eyes of their peers, with whom they were in fierce competition and often conflict.Failure led to loss of face and shame. Consequently, shame has been generally assumed to be the predominant moral sentiment that motivated and restrained the ancient Greeks. Their shame culture was based on public esteem. What mattered was where one stood with respect to one's peers, who constituted an honor-group. This view has been challenged by moral philosopher Bernard Wil liams, who argues that Greek conceptions of shame also included elements of guilt. The moral objective in the West is to avoid doing wrong; in the East, to do what is right. These cultural differences are embedded in various languages as well.This makes translating terms like guilt and shame a common source of confusion. For example, when we look for synonyms for shame and guilt in Chinese, we do not find single terms that correspond to them. Rather, we find a number of terms that correspond to various types of shame, making distinctions that do not exist in English. In some contexts, even guilt may appear as a subsidiary form of shame. Even if the terms to designate them vary, are these emotions universal or culture specific? Do an American and an Indian experience guilt and shame the same way, whatever they call them?There are no simple answers to this question. Some emotions appear to be more universal than others; for instance, it is hard to imagine a culture that does not recog nize expressions of fear or anger. However, when it comes to complex emotions like guilt and shame, which are more subject to cultural variation, the picture becomes less clear. Even the fact that a culture has no word for an emotion does not mean that the emotion it represents is absent. Linguists point out that even if certain emotions are universal, their terminology is not.For instance, there is no word for â€Å"disgust† in Polish. And in one Australian aboriginal language, â€Å"fear† and â€Å"shame† are expressed by the same word (associated with the impulse to retreat). The common error is to start with one's own language and look for exact translations in other languages. Ultimately, it is not through specific terms like â€Å"guilt† or â€Å"shame† but throughmetalanguage—descriptions of the essential elements in emotional states— that we can test the universality of the emotions. For instance, the answer to â€Å"How do y ou feel when you have lost someone dear to you? would convey the idea of sadness better than would the answer to the question â€Å"Do you feel sad? † How does the evolutionary view help us in  dealing with guilt? This is not a matter explicitly addressed by evolutionary psychologists. . . . Nonetheless, the evolutionary basis of the capacity for altruism and the capacity to feel guilty provides us with a natural foundation for guilt, and hence the need for its acceptance and usefulness. If guilt is indeed part of our nature, and there are good reasons for it, it makes no sense to fight it or deny it. Related essay: Shame is Worth a TryAccepting guilt as a fact of life therefore makes it easier to approach it in a positive manner, and perhaps helps us to resolve it in more authentic and adaptive ways. HERANT KATCHADOURIAN,  who came to Stanford in 1966, is an emeritus professor of psychiatry and human biology and former president of the Flora Family Foundation. He has received the Dinkelspiel and Lyman awards and has been selected seven times as Outstanding Professor and Class Day speaker. HONOR AND SHAME  IN A MIDDLE EASTERN SETTING| Roland Muller Copyright 2000 All rights reserved. Sociologists have recognized that three social issues have existed since earliest times.As civilizations formed, each of them grappled with the concept of fear, shame and guilt. These are, in essence the building blocks of society. Every society has its particular ways of dealing with these issues. And each of these issues have different importance, depending on the cultural makeup of that society . These three aspects make up the basic building blocks of worldview. It is similar to the three basic colors that an artist mixes to make all the colors of the universe. On my computer, I can mix the three primary colors to make up 64 million other colors. That's the way it is with worldview.There are many different kinds of worldview, but when carefully examined they can be better understood when looking at them in the light of man's response to guilt, shame and fear. Sociologists have used terms like guilt-based cultures, and shame-based cultures for years now. We must be careful, however, not to try and fit each culture or worldview into one specific category such as fear based or shame based. As I stated, these building blocks are similar to an artist, creating thousands of colors from three basic primary colors. How much of each primary color is used, determines what the final color will be when the paint is mixed.In the same way, all three building blocks are present in all c ultures and worldviews, but how much of each one is present, determines the actual type of culture that emerges. Having determined this, one must also consider how people in a particular local culture react to the elements of the overall culture. As an example, when an Arab is shamed, he may react by taking revenge on the one who causes the shame, but when an oriental is shamed, he may react by committing suicide. So while individual cultures may react to sin in different way, in general terms there are great blocks of the world that have similar worldviews.Where are the major blocks? Many western nations (Northern Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand) have cultures that contain mostly guilt-based cultural characteristics. On the other hand, much of the Middle East and Asia is made up shame-based cultures. Most of the primal religions and cultures of the world (such as tribes in the jungles of Africa, Asia, and South America) are structured around fear-based principles. The problem comes when we want to simply classify cultures into these three basic classifications. They do not easily fit, because they are made up of blends of all three.Thus, when analyzing a culture, one must look for the primary cultural characteristics, and then the secondary ones. As an example, many North American Native cultures are made up of elements of both shame-based and fear-based cultures. On the other hand, much of North American culture has been made up almost exclusively of guilt-based principles, although this has changed in the last two decades. As cultures and worldviews developed over the millennia, they have gravitated towards one of these groups. This polarization has created three mega-trends in worldview.While the majority of worldviews fits into these three classifications, many cultures draw equally from two or all three worldviews. This mixing of worldviews is especially noticeable in South America where jungle tribes with fear-based cultures come in co ntact with shame-based cultures originating out of southern Spain, and guilt-based cultures brought by western religion and western business. The goal of this paper is to simply introduce the idea of guilt, shame and fear based cultures, and then to examine how the Nabataean culture fit into this picture.Along the way I will use illustrations drawn from many cultures of the world, including modern Muslim culture. Guilt-Based Culture None of us lives in exactly the same culture. Culture varies from town to town, family to family and sometimes even from individual to individual. All of us are different. We are made up of different fabrics and formed by the different experiences that come into our lives on a day to day basis. Even those who try to define â€Å"American† or â€Å"Canadian† culture can only talk in vague generalizations. Americans come from all kinds of ethnic backgrounds, and have all kinds of values.Some live in middle class housing, some in cardboard box es on the street, and some in large impressive mansions. It's hard to place categorizations and descriptions on people who are so diverse. Despite this, however, there are some general characteristics or mega-traits that fit the majority of people in the western world. Certain basic fundamental beliefs have molded western civilization. These beliefs have laid the foundations upon which these nations are built, and from which the fabric of their society has been formed. One of these basic foundations is their belief in right versus wrong.This understanding is so deeply ingrained in western culture, that westerners analyze almost everything from this perspective. Most western forms of entertainment are built upon ‘the good guys and the bad guys. ‘ It is so familiar to westerners that few of them question its validity. It is such an integral part of religion and society, that they often cannot imagine a world where ‘right versus wrong' isn't the accepted basic underly ing principle. ‘Right versus wrong' is the yardstick used in their culture to measure everything else with.They talk about the rightness and wrongness of someone else's actions. They talk about things being â€Å"right for me. † They are obsessed with knowing their rights and exercising them. Many western societies spend countless hours and billions of dollars debating the wrongs of society. Is homosexuality right or wrong? Is spending billions on the military right or wrong? Is possession of drugs right or wrong? How about possession of nuclear bombs, or weapons of mass destruction? Almost every major issue the west struggles with involves an aspect of deciding whether something is right or wrong.They arrive at this basic tension in life because almost everything in western culture is plotted on a guilt/innocence line. (Innocence being something defined as being right or righteousness). Guilt —————————- Inn ocence The pulls and demands of these two diametrically opposed forces dictate much of western human behavior. Guilt can plague and haunt people bringing fear and condemnation upon them. Many westerners do everything they can to avoid being guilty. Psychologists spend a great deal of their time helping people deal with all sorts of guilt complexes.Evangelical Christians in particular, often live in circles that are governed by guilt principles based on the authority of the Bible. Outside of these circles, guilt is defined in many other ways. It can be a sense of public disapproval, being in trouble with the authorities, or not being politically correct. However guilt is defined, and to what extent it influences a culture varies widely from location to location. However, the understanding of right and wrong has been instrumental in forming much of western society. On the other end of the spectrum, is righteousness, or innocence.This is the unspoken goal of much of western society. â €Å"I'm OK, you're OK† is the most comfortable situation for many. Many westerners express their innocence with the statement that they are as good as the next person. If this is true, then they can get about their business of pursuing happiness and pleasure within the bounds of being OK and not guilty. Most westerners do what they can to avoid being guilty and at the same time exercise their rights. This guilt/innocence thinking is so ingrained in western society that most westerners have immediate reflexes to events that catch them off guard.Being a westerner, I have often noticed some of the reflexes that we have developed. Have you ever noticed what happens in the swimming pool when the lifeguard blows his whistle? Almost all westerners will stop to see who is guilty, and when they realize they are innocent will resume swimming. This is a normal scenario from the western world, but it is not true in much of the eastern world. When we in the western world do something wron g, like unintentionally running a red light, we may feel guilty. This is also not necessarily true in the eastern world. Or, how about this scenario?Imagine a classroom full of grade school kids. Suddenly, the intercom interrupts their class. Johnny is being called to the principle's office. What is the immediate reaction of the other children? In the west the immediate reaction would almost always be: â€Å"What did you do wrong? † Even western children almost always immediately assume guilt. Perhaps the school principal was going to hand out rewards, but much of western society conditions people to expect the worst, and they feel pangs of guilt. So much of western thinking is wrapped up in guilt. Wars are justified on the basis of establishing guilt.During the opening days of the Gulf War, the American government spent many hours and millions of dollars determining if Saddam Hussein was guilty. Once they thought they had established that he was guilty of committing atrociti es they had the right to take military action against him. Throughout the war, they continued to make statements about Mr. Hussein's deranged mental state and irrational actions. All of this helped justify the war. In fact, all during the history of western civilizations, wars have had to be justified, and each side identifies the other as being the ‘bad guys. But some things are not easy to chart between right and wrong. Is a hungry child stealing food guilty? Should he be punished despite his hunger? These questions disturb us, because we feel that everything in life must fit somewhere between guilt and innocence. In fact, western association with guilt has gone so far as to provide an avenue for people to develop guilt complexes. They feel guilt for what they have done and also guilt for what they have not done. They even feel guilt for what others have done. People who struggle with a guilt complex can even be overcome with embarrassment and feelings of guilt from the acti ons of others.The flip side of guilt is innocence, righteousness, and exercising rights. As I mentioned, â€Å"I'm OK, you're OK† is an important philosophy in western culture. In order not to point a finger at people, western society continues to expand the limits of what is acceptable activity. By making homosexuality acceptable, they help thousands of people avoid feeling guilty. This alone is enough to convince many people in western society that it's OK for people to be homosexual. In fact, almost anything is tolerated as long as it doesn't hurt another person.I have been surprised to discover that many people in our western world believe that our fixation with right and wrong is not only normal, but also the only correct way to think. They assume that anyone, who does not think in these terms, does not think rationally or logically. In order to understand guilt-based culture, we must go back to Greek and Roman times, and examine the origin of this pattern of thinking, a nd discover how this has had an impact on society and religion. The Roman Connection The Roman Empire has come and gone, leaving us with a few ruined cities, and a wealth of stories about conquest and heroism.While most of what the Romans accomplished has disappeared, there is one facet of Roman life that has impacted the west, right down to the present. It is the Roman law, or the ‘pax romana' (Roman peace) which was brought about by everyone obeying the Roman law. Roman law introduced the concept that the law was above everyone, even the lawmakers. This idea was not totally new. The Jews under Moses understood this. Greek politicians developed a similar plan with their city-state, but with laws that were man made, not divine. The Romans, however, perfected the system, and put it into widespread use.They developed a type of democracy known as the republic. They put in place a complex legal system that required lawmakers, lawyers, and judges. This Roman system of law left a tr emendous impact on western society. Even to this day, much of the western legal system is still built around the basic Roman code of law. Western civilization today is littered with references to the Roman Empire. Much of their coins, architecture, and language have Roman roots. Legal and economic theories are so filled with Romanisms that westerners no longer see them for what they are.They have become so much a part of their mental furniture, that few people today question them. As an example, Roman law during the Roman Empire assumed that the individual's rights were granted by the state (by government) and that lawmakers can make up laws. Under Roman law, the state was supreme, and rights were granted or erased whenever lawmakers decided. This philosophy is sometimes called ‘statism. ‘ Its basic premise is that there is no law higher than the government's law. Roman politicians were not the first to invent statism but hey did such an effective job of applying it, tha t the Roman Empire has become the guiding star for politicians in the west. Statists see the â€Å"pax romana,† the period in which Rome dominated the Mediterranean world, as the golden days of statism. The known world was â€Å"unified† and controlled by one large government. This unification was symbolized in Roman times by something known as the  fasces. This was a bundle of wooden rods bound together by red-colored bands. In ancient Rome the fasces was fixed to a wooden pole, with an ax at the top or side. This symbolized the unification of the people under a single government.The ax suggested what would happen to anyone who didn't obey the government. The Roman fasces became the origin of the word fascism. During Roman times, pax romana (the Roman peace) meant, â€Å"do as you are told, don't make waves, or you will be hauled away in chains. † Roman Law was supreme. In contrast to this, there was the old way of obeying the supreme ruler. Under this system , the word of the ruler was law. With the Republic, the Romans elevated law, so that it was above the ruler. Now everyone, even the emperor of Rome had to obey the law. The law, not the ruler determined if people were innocent or guilty.It is interesting to note, that as the early Christian church developed and grew, Roman law also had an impact on Christian theology. Since Roman law interpreted everything in the terms of right versus wrong, early Christians were deeply influenced by this thinking. Early Church Theologians Tertullian,  the early church father who first developed a code of systematic theology, was a lawyer steeped in Roman law. Using his understanding of law, and the need for justice, guilt, and redemption, he laid the basis for Christian systematic theology, as it would develop in the west.Tertullian was born shortly before 160 AD, into the home of a Roman centurion on duty in Carthage. He was trained in both Greek and Latin, and was very much at home in the class ics. He became a proficient Roman lawyer and taught public speaking and practiced law in Rome, where he was converted to Christianity. In the years that followed he became the outstanding apologist of the Western church and the first known author of Christian systematic theology. Basil the Great  was born in 329 AD, and after completing his education in Athens he went on to practice law and teach rhetoric. In 370 AD, Basil, the awyer, became Basil the Bishop when he was elected bishop of Caesarea. During his time as Bishop he wrote many books in defense of the deity of Christ and of the Holy Spirit. Basil's training in law and rhetoric gave him the tools he needed to speak out in defense of the church. Next came  Augustine  who was born in 354 AD into the home of a Roman official in the North African town of Tagaste. He received his early education in the local school, where he learned Latin to the accompaniment of many beatings. He hated studying the Greek language so much th at he never learned to use it proficiently.He was sent to school in nearby Madaura and from there went to Carthage to study rhetoric, a technique used in Roman law for debate. He then taught legal rhetoric in his hometown and Carthage until he went to Milan in 384 AD. He was converted in 386 and became a priest in 391. He returned to Africa and became a prolific writer and bishop. No other Christian after Paul has had such a wide and deep impact on the Christian world through his writings as Augustine. Ambrose  was born around 340 AD, in Gaul. When his father, the prefect of Gaul, died, the family moved to Rome where Ambrose was educated for the legal profession.Later, he was appointed civil governor over a large territory, being headquartered in Milan. Upon the death of the bishop of Milan in 374, the people unanimously wanted him to take that position. Believing this to be the call of God, he gave up his high political position, distributed his money to the poor, and became a bi shop. In 374, Ambrose demonstrated his ability in the fields of church administration, preaching, and theology. But as always, his training in Roman law enforced his views of guilt and righteousness. Have you noticed the impact that law and lawyers had on the development of the early church?This trend did not stop with the early church. Reformation Theologians John Calvin  was born in 1505 in northeastern France where his father was a respected citizen. He studied Humanistic Studies at the University of Paris, and then law at the University of Orleans, and finally at the University of Bourges. Sometime between 1532 and 1533 he converted and adopted the ideas of the reformation. The writings of John Calvin, the lawyer and theologian, have had a tremendous impact on our society. Calvin was not alone. Arnauld Antoine the French  theologian (1612-1694), studied at Calvi and Lisieux, first law, then theology.He was made a priest and doctor in 1634. Arnauld spoke out against the Jesui ts and his writings added to the impact of the reformation. There are more examples of theologians who were also lawyers, such as  Martin Luther, but this list will suffice to point out that legal thought and expression had much to do with the development of the theology of the Early Church and the Reformation. Each of these church leaders continued to develop the relationship between Christianity, as it was known in the west, and the legal understanding of guilt, justice, and righteousness.These lawyers were concerned with establishing guilt, or innocence, and they brought this emphasis with them, into their theology. And so the western church that developed used this theology to build their civilizations. In the ensuing years, new nations in the New World would be founded on the theological basis developed by these church leaders. The United States of America was founded on these principles. The American founders attempted to establish a nation built on the Roman principle of a republic, and on the early church's understanding of right and wrong.Today, it is interesting to notice that there are many non-western sources who link guilt-based culture with Christianity. In October 1999, Isaiah Kalinowski, the Opinion Editor for the Jordan Times, wrote an article entitled â€Å"The Shame Culture that is Wabash. † In this article he pointed out: â€Å"†¦ guilt culture is due largely to Christianity. A shame culture is one in which individuals are kept from transgressing the social order by fear of public disgrace. On the other hand, in a guilt culture, one's own moral attitudes and fear of retribution in the distant future are what enforce the ethical behavior of a member of that society. From Kalinowski's perspective, guilt-based culture is linked to Christian theology. This is an unfortunate misrepresentation, as the Bible was written in a shame-based setting and speaks to all cultures and worldviews. On the other hand, Christians, must recognize the incredible impact that guilt-based culture has had on their history and understanding and interpretation of the Bible. The Eastern Scene Christianity in the east, however, developed differently. Eastern theologians did not use Roman law as a vehicle for interpreting the gospel.Rather, the eastern world was caught up in the shame-honor relationship that was prevalent in societies scattered from the Middle East to the Far East. Eastern Orthodox theology didn't deal directly with sin, guilt, and redemption. Chrysostom,  the early church theologian for the Eastern Church, was born about 345 AD into a wealthy aristocratic family in Antioch. He was a student of the sophist Libanius who had been a friend of the Emperor Julian. This man gave him a good training in the Greek classics and rhetoric that laid the foundation for his excellent speaking ability.After his baptism in 368, he became a monk in the eastern churches. Chrysostom rose to being an outstanding preacher, even winning t he acclaim of the emperor. Today we have a record of around 680 of Chrystostom's sermons and homilies and I am told that he never once preached on justification. In the end, he was banished because he spoke out so sharply against the views of the western theologians. In the same way,  Islam,  which rose to prominence around 600 AD, teaches that God remains over all, and that law is in his hands, not the hands of lawmakers.The Qur'an enforces the principle that God is overall with the story about Pharaoh and how he was shown Allah's â€Å"mightiest miracle, but he denied it and rebelled. ‘  The Pharaoh quickly went away and summoning all his men, made to them a proclamation. ‘I am your supreme Lord. ‘  The Qur'an then tells us that Allah â€Å"Smote him,† and goes on to warn, â€Å"Surely in this there is a lesson for the God fearing. † Therefore it would be unthinkable to a Muslim, that a lawmaker could make a law that is over all. This is wh y Islam presents both a religious and a cultural pattern for people to live by. God dictates both moral laws and civil laws.Western Historians Roman law and thinking has also impacted the way we westerner look at history. The danger comes, when we westerners take our Roman understanding of civilization and culture and apply it to those who do not have a Roman-based culture. We fruitlessly spend untold hours and incalculable amounts of energy explaining to what motivates people and shapes society, when in truth, we don't understand the real principles of the other culture. The answer to this dilemma is quite simple. We westerners must put our Roman, guilt-based understanding of culture and history aside, and strive to understand other worldviews and their thinking.Then we need to return to our history books and discover what is happening in a society that is not pre-occupied with right and wrong, or guilt and innocence. Fear-Based Cultures As we drew near to the jungle village, the s ound of drums could be heard. Drawing closer, we could see people dancing and withering on the ground. A man approached us and explained that they could not go further. The village was doing a sacred rite to improve the economy and bring more trade to the area. We were escorted away and not given a chance to introduce why we had come to their village.Later we heard that a human sacrifice had been offered to the spirits that day. In another situation we arrived in a village when a rain-making ceremony was about to begin. They were invited to watch. A black bull was led to the edge of the village where it faced the direction from where the rain would come. The animal's throat was cut and it fell over on its left side, to the delight of all. This indicated that the sacrifice was acceptable. The men then cut up the meat and cooked it. As the meat was cooking, an old man began to shout out a prayer to the spirits for rain. Soon everyone joined in.After the meat was eaten, the shouting tu rned into dancing. The villagers danced all afternoon until the rain came. It rained so heavily that everyone had to run for shelter. Did the rituals bring the rain? To the natives it was obvious and there was no way that we rational westerners convince them otherwise. As these two stories illustrate, there are many people in the world today whose lives revolve around their interaction with the spiritual world. They believe that gods and spirits exist in the universe and they must live in peace with these unseen powers, either by living quietly, or by appeasing these powers.Based on their worldview, these cultures and peoples view the universe as a place filled with gods, demons, spirits, ghosts, and ancestors. Man needs to live at peace with the powers around him, and often man lives in fear. This fear is based on a number of different things. First, man fears man. Tribal wars are endemic, with captives becoming slaves or, sometimes, a meal for cannibals. Whenever tribes encounter people from outside of their own group, they approached them with suspicion and fear. Secondly, these people fear the supernatural.All around them events are taking place that can only be explained by the supernatural. Much like the ancient civilizations, they have developed spiritual explanations for how things work in this world. If crops fail, then specific gods or demons are responsible. If sickness comes, then other gods or demons are responsible. If a tribe fails in battle, it is because of the activity of a god or demon. Sickness is often viewed as a god reaping revenge. Everything in life, even romance, is somehow attributed to the activities of gods or demons. The struggle that these people face is simply one of needing power.Using their voodoo, charms, and other methods, they seek to gain control over other people and over the controlling powers of the universe. The paradigm that these people live in is one of fear versus power. At the end of the 19th century, E. B. Tylor attempted to understand the difference in thinking between Europeans and other peoples living in Africa and South America. In his writings he coined the word ‘animism' from the Latin word  anima  for ‘soul. ‘ He saw the animistic worldview as interpreting everything from a spiritual philosophy rather than a materialistic philosophy.Many sociologists of Tylor's era saw mankind moving from an ancient worldview based on the supernatural to a modern worldview based on science and reality. Dave Burnett states in his book  Unearthly Powers,  that H. W. Turner later advocated the use of the term primal religion, meaning that â€Å"these religions both anteceded the great historic religions and continue to reveal many of the basic or primary features of religion. † Almost everywhere you find animists or primal religions you find people living under the influence of a fear-based culture.Burnett goes on to state, â€Å"Power can be understood in many ways: ph ysical, political, economic, social, and religious. The secular worldview tends to regard all power as originating from within the material world. †¦ In contrast, primal worldviews see such powers not only as being real within the empirical world but as having their primary origin outside the visible world. † In this way, those whose lives operate in the fear/power paradigm see themselves living in a physical world that co-exists and is influenced by unseen powers. These powers may be present in people or animals or even in inanimate objects like trees or hills.In some cultures, powers may be perceived in personal terms such as we would use for living beings. These powers are often regarded as having their own particular character, feeling, and ability to relate to others, and often, even have a will of their own. Like people, they may be angered, placated, or turned to in time of need. Power is an important concept in fear-based cultures. In the Pacific Islands it is oft en called ‘mana,' while the Iroquois of North America call it ‘orenda,' which particularly refers to the mystic power derived from a chant. The Eskimos have the notion of ‘sila,' a force watching and controlling everything.The Chinese have the concept of ‘fung shui,' or the powers within the earth and sea. In folk Islam the term ‘baraka'  (blessing or holiness) sometimes embraces many of these concepts. In most fear/power cultures, the main way of dealing with a power is to establish rules to protect the unwary from harm and procedures to appease those powers that are offended. These rules and procedures are generally referred to as taboo. Taboos come in the form of things like special people, forbidden or unclean foods, sacred objects, special acts or rituals, and special names.Appeasements are usually made in the form of sacrifice or dedication to the invisible powers. These powers can take various forms, such as: ghosts, demons, ancestors who live around people, spirits in trees and rocks, and totems (clans associated with certain animals or inanimate objects. ) In order to deal with these powers, rituals are established which people believe will affect the powers around them. Rituals are performed on certain calendar dates, and at certain times in someone's life (rites of passage), or in a time of crisis.In order to appease the powers of the universe, systems of appeasement are worked out. They vary from place to place. Some civilizations offer incense while some offer their children as sacrifices to gods. However it is done, a system of appeasement, based on fear is the norm for their worldview. Wherever this system of appeasement comes into being, religious persons come to the forefront to control these systems. In some cases they are known as priests. In other cases they are known as witch doctors, or shamans. Whatever their title, their role is the same. They are the ones who hold power.Often they are the only ones who u nderstand the needs of the gods or demons, and they are the ones through whom the demons or gods communicate. In every fear-based culture, the pattern is much the same. The witch doctor, priest, or shaman controls people through the use of fear. They are very effective in their roles, and as a result, whole cultures and people groups are held in their iron grip. Early Religion As archeologists and historians have dug through the sands of time, they have uncovered temples and signs of religious activity that reflect strong fear-based elements in early civilizations.Along with this, the structure of civilizations where rulers held absolute power reflects a fear-power base for their civilization. Kings, pharaohs, and rulers held supreme authority and wielded power through the fear that they instilled in the members of their civilization. This allowed civilizations like the Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and others to conquer wide areas of their world. While we can deduce the fear-po wer aspect in these civilizations from ancient buildings and military records, it is much harder to detect the importance of shame and honor. Shame-Based Cultures Our taxi screeched to a halt.Lying in the middle of the street was a teen-age girl, dying. She had been shot in the head four times. Just then her brother walked across the street with two policemen and stated, â€Å"There she is. I killed her because she was in an immoral situation with a man. † Under the laws of the country, the young man was innocent. He had not committed murder but had preserved the honor of his family. In another case, a girl ran away from home. Later her family learned she had married someone from another religion. They were furious. The police imprisoned the girl so that she would be protected from her family.Elderly grandmothers taunted the brother and father. â€Å"How long do we need to keep our heads to the ground in shame? Won't you do something to cleanse the shame from our tribe so we can raise our heads and live in honor once again? † The family finally agreed to pay the police a $50,000. 00 guarantee that they would not hurt her and she was released into their custody. Within hours her father and brother shot her thirteen times. The entire family was pleased that honor had been restored. The guilt/innocence perspective in which westerners live dictates much of our thinking in the west.However, not everyone in the world operates within this paradigm. As I mentioned earlier, while living in the Middle East I noticed that when the lifeguard at a swimming pool blew his whistle, the westerners all stopped to see who was guilty, but the Arabs kept right on swimming. As I observed this and other phenomena, I began to realize that Arabs and Arab society were operating in another whole dimension. Guilt did not have the same power and influence as it did in the west. While they were aware of guilt, it didn't have the same strong connotations for them as it had for me.If a policeman pulled me over, I immediately felt guilty, thinking that perhaps I had done something wrong. But when my Arab friends were pulled over, they didn't display any sign of guilt. They talked boldly to the policeman, and even argued loudly with him over the issues at hand. It was only after many years of living in a Muslim culture that it started to dawn on me that the Arabs around me were not operating on a level of guilt versus innocence. Nor were they operating in a fear versus power paradigm. I had heard much about this from missionaries living in Africa but it didn't seem to apply to the Arabs of the Levant.Rather, I discovered that Arabs were living in a worldview where the predominant paradigm was shame versus honor. Once I clued in to this, I began to explore this concept and tried to verify it on all social levels. I was amazed to discover what I found. When I would visit my friends, I would try to act correctly and they would try to act honorably, not shamefu lly. I was busy trying to learn the rights and wrongs of their culture, but somehow my framework of right versus wrong didn't fit what was actually happening. The secret wasn't to act rightly or wrongly in their culture.It wasn't that there was a right way and a wrong way of doing things. The underlying principle was that there was an honorable and dishonorable way of doing things. Every part of the Muslim culture I lived in was based on honor and shame. When I visited my friends I could honor them in the way I acted. They could honor me, in the way they acted. Three cups of coffee bestowed honor on me. The first, called ‘salam' (peace) was followed by ‘sadaqa' (friendship), and the third cup of coffee was called ‘issayf' (the sword). The meaning was clear in their culture.When I arrived I was offered a cup of coffee that represented peace between us. As we drank and talked, the cup of friendship was offered. The last cup, the sword, illustrated their willingness t o protect me and stand by me. It didn't matter if I was right or wrong, they were bound by their honor to protect me. Everywhere I moved in the Middle Eastern culture there were things that pointed to honor or shame. What chair I chose to sit in, who entered the door first, the way I expressed myself in Arabic, the very way I walked and held myself, all communicated to others around me ‘my place' in the world.The cultures of the Middle East are filled with thousands of tiny nuances that communicate messages about shame and honor. Shame is a popular topic today in western society. Shame, however is closely identified with a lack of self-esteem. Shame often stems from some form of abuse where children fail to learn trust. This is quite different from the shame societies of the east where shame and fear of shame are used as controlling forces in people's lives. (As compared with right and wrong being used as a controlling factor. As western parents, we teach our children to act r ightly. If they don't, we teach them that feelings of guilt are the proper response. In a shame-based culture however, children are taught to act honorably, and if they don't, feelings of shame are the proper response. But it goes farther than just feelings. Shame and honor are positions in society, just as being right (and justified) is a position in our western culture. In the west, young people are free to act as spontaneously as they want, as long as they are within the framework of right and wrong.They can be loud, boisterous, and happy, as long as they don't break things, or abuse others. Our rule in the west is â€Å"As long as I don't hurt someone else or their property, I'm generally ok. † Young people in a Muslim setting are different. Wherever they go, they represent their families and tribes. Young people are not free to act as they want. They must always act honorably, so that the honor of their family and tribe is upheld. If they act shamefully, then the family or tribe will react against them. Shameful deeds are covered up. If they can't be covered up, they are revenged.It is the unwritten rule of the desert. The whole concept of shameful deeds can be traced back to the early Bedouin code of practice, which existed even before Islam arrived. This code, still much in existence today, affects not only the way individuals act, but also the actions of entire nations. As I have visited with people from other eastern countries, I have continued to explore the concept of honor and shame among these other countries. It has helped me understand and communicate with people from places such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Japan, and Korea.In fact, I have discovered that the concept of shame and honor makes a great discussion topic. I have often asked people from shame-based cultures what are honorable or shameful acts or actions in their cultures. The discussion that follows is often highly stimulating, and usually reflects or cont rasts similar attitudes right across the shame- based countries of the world. In some cases however, there are distinct differences between cultures. As I mentioned earlier, if someone is badly shamed in an Arab culture and the shame cannot be hidden, then it is revenged, and the person responsible for the shaming is killed.In many eastern cultures, if a shame cannot be hidden, the way out is suicide. Even here, however, there are many similarities, as I have known of a number of students in Jordan committing suicide because of their poor school marks, just as happens in Japan. In order for shame-based cultures to work, shame and honor are usually attached to something greater than the individual. Honor is almost always placed on a group. This can be the immediate family, the extended tribe, or in some cases, as large as an entire nation; as was demonstrated in Japan just previous to World War Two.In most Middle Eastern cultures, honor is wrapped up with one's tribe. Everyone grows up within a tribal concept. If someone is from the Beni Hassan tribe, he thinks and acts, and dresses as a Beni Hassan. His actions reflect on the honor the Beni Hassan tribe. If he acts honorably, the Beni Hassan tribe is honored. If he acts shamefully, the whole tribe is shamed. If the act is vile enough, the Beni Hassan tribe will react, and execute the offender, even though he is a member of their own tribe, and perhaps even their immediate family.Thus the honor of the tribe is restored. Many years ago an Arab soldier's gun accidentally discharged and killed his friend and companion in the army. After serving seven years, he was released on condition that he leave Jordan. He lived for nearly twenty years in the United States, but decided to return one day to see his family. When it was learned that he had returned, several young people, some of whom had not been born at the time of the killing, surrounded the house where he was and riddled his body with bullets. Their honor was restored, and shame removed.If someone shames another tribe, tribal warfare could result, and often only the skilful intervention of a third party ends the strife. Arab lore is full of stories of how wise and skillful men have intervened in difficult situations. In fact, many national rulers gain their fame and reputation from their skills at ending tribal strife. In the Middle East two methods are recognized. First, a skillful ruler, through diplomatic efforts and displays of great wisdom, can end disputes. Solomon's dealings with the two mothers who claimed the same baby displayed the kind of wisdom that Arabs appreciate and desire in their rulers.The second kind of ruler crushes all of the tribes and by force makes them submit to himself. Peace may then rule, but once the controlling power is removed, old animosities return. This is well illustrated in the Balkans conflict where the domination of communism brought about a measure of peace. Once freedom returned however, old confl icts and animosities flared again. The storytellers who frequent the coffeehouses of the Middle East excel in telling stories of both kinds of rulers and heroes, especially heroes who can effectively deal with shame and restore honor.This is very different from the entertainment styles of the west, where the hero determines who is guilty, and punishes him, and right and goodness reign again. This is because in our worldview, we try to hang onto the concept that in the midst of a crooked and perverse world, right still reigns and has the upper hand. Those from a shame-based culture, on the other hand, cling to the idea of maintaining honor, in the midst of a shameful and alienated world. For many western people it is very hard if not impossible to try and comprehend a culture that is based on shame, not right versus wrong.In most western cultures, telling the truth is right and telling lies is wrong. In the Middle East, people don't think of lies as being ‘right' or ‘wron g. ‘ The question is, â€Å"Is what is being said, honorable? † If a lie protects the honor of a tribe or nation, then it is fine. If a lie is told for purely selfish reasons, then it is shameful. Thus, in the west we debate ethics, by trying to determine if things are right or wrong. In the east, they debate ethics, by trying to determine if things are honorable or not. Shame in Western Culture In the past, shame has played a role in western culture.One has only to read Tolstoy's  Anna Karenina, or any of Shakespeare's works to see the role that shame used to play. Shakespeare uses the word shame nine times as often as he does guilt. In time, however, our culture has changed and guilt has become much more important. Then, during the last twenty years, we have begun to move away from such a strong guilt-bases for our culture. Why is this? I suspect that the popularity of Freud's teachings is one reason. Sociologists generally credit Freudian psychology for the removal of guilt from western culture.Since his teachings have become popular in many universities, the concept of guilt has become unpopular and guilt has been assigned to others, such as our parents. Other factors, like the lack of responsibility within modern politics have influence young people today. Nixon and Watergate, and Clinton and Lewinsky have illustrated to people today that ‘right versus wrong' is not the only way to think. During the period of 1960 to 2000 western civilization has begun a slow but steady shift away from the ‘right versus wrong' paradigm. Today young people are very reluctant to label anything as right or wrong.Instead, things are assigned the label as â€Å"cool† or â€Å"not cool. † In the eyes of many high school students, being cool is equivalent to being honorable. Being not cool is the equivalent of shame. I believe that this slow shift in worldview is responsible for many of the differences between boosters, boomers, busters, and Generation X'rs. Shaming in History Early Roman culture started out in the fear/power paradigm. Events of nature and history were interpreted within this paradigm. The worship of a pantheon of gods carried on during their whole civilization until Christianity became the state religion.When the Romans adopted the Greek pattern of placing the law above the emperor, they began to interpret events in their society on the guilt/innocence paradigm. This soon came to the forefront of their civilization, and fear/power was pushed to the back. When the Romans conquered shame-based civilizations the people they conquered had a profound impact on their own culture. Shame was always present in Roman culture, but it slowly came more and more to the forefront and eventually into Mediterranean culture today. In republican Rome, criminals had the doors to their houses burned as a public sign that a criminal was living there.Those who had been wronged could legally follow the criminal around, ch anting and accusing him in public places. The concept of public shaming carried on into the Middle Ages, and even into Victorian England where criminals were put into stocks. These stocks were located in public places, so that the criminal would be known and shamed before all. Pillories were rife during the Victorian age, when those who were pilloried had to endure the shame of publicly having rotten vegetables thrown at them. Branding criminals was practiced in England until the eighteenth century.Brands were often placed on the hands or face, so that the criminals would be publicly shamed wherever they went. The major difference between east and west, however, is not the presence of the shame concept, but rather, the structure of society around either the group mentality or individualism. Eastern shame became much more powerful than western shaming activities, simply because in the east the shame rests on the person's group rather than the individual. Since many eastern society fu nctions in a group setting, the whole group suffers rather than just the individual.If the crime is bad enough, the group itself may oust or, for a severe offense, kill the offender. In 1999 at least twenty-five women were killed to maintain the honor of their families in the country of Jordan. Hundreds of others were killed in countries like Egypt, Sudan, Syria, and Iran. In many countries where shame-based culture is predominant, the names of criminals and those being ousted from their families for shameful activities are publicly printed in the newspapers. In western countries we tend to isolate criminals from their surroundings, and then determine if they are guilty.Criminals are then locked away out of sight, rather than publicly shamed in stocks in the public square. It's interesting to notice that in the Crow Indian culture in North America, mocking of some one else's inappropriate behavior effects shaming. This is sometimes called â€Å"buying-of-the-ways. † If you im itate someone else's inappropriate behavior, you are buying his ways. In some cases a person actually offers money to buy someone else's inappropriate behavior. This is the ultimate shame. In many shame-based cultures, rather than encourage others, people criticize and question others.This is seen as positive, as it keeps them from becoming too proud. In the same way, Arabs are often quick to criticize leaders, especially elected ones, if they perceive that they are too ambitious or proud. They are sometimes publicly questioned or shamed, and often they leave public life. Even new language students discover that their neighbors are quick to point out that someone else speaks better than they do, or they are asked why they speak so poorly after being there for â€Å"a whole four months! † The criticism is often meant to keep them from being proud of how well they have done.Arabs understand that the criticism may be a compliment, but the poor westerner is often crushed. Clash o f World Views As I mentioned earlier, there are three basic planes on which worldview, function. On each of these planes, there

Soicial Issues and Warren Court Decisions Essay

Soicial Issues and Warren Court Decisions - Essay Example In addition, immigrants have long faced discrimination in areas such as housing, employment opportunities and education. Moreover, civil rights accords do not incorporate racial minorities such as the disabled, women and homosexuals. Till 1860s, numerous states prevented or restricted women from having their own property. The right of a woman to vote was not protected constitutionally until 1920 when the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified. Anti-gender discrimination campaign commenced with the enactment of 1964 Civil Rights Act came into force, effectively illegalizing any forms of gender based discrimination. As a result, individuals could not be discriminated based on national origin, religion, age and race. Various supreme courts have ruled on the above two issues. A case in point is the Reed v. Reed Supreme Court Drama involving Sally Reed as the appellant and Cecil Reed as the appellee. According to this case, the appellant claimed that the Idaho law favored the appointment for t he mere reason of being male over a woman for purposes of being an administrator of an estate whose owner had died. The decision was made in favor of Sally Reed, the Appellant after finding out that the probate law of Idaho discriminated against women. This ruling was the first in favor of women’s right following the Fourteenth Amendment. ... s states from enacting any law which shall abridge (lessen) the constitutional rights and privileges of citizens of the United States nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the law.† The Equal Protection Clause guarantees that individuals in groups of persons or persons in situations that are similar should be equally treated. Ruth Bader Ginsburg the case lawyer and the subsequent judge of the Supreme Court labeled the Reeds case as â€Å"the turning point case.† The state law for the first time was held invalid because it allowed discrimination against women. The U.S Supreme Court in 1857 in the Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19How.)393,15L. ED. 691, concluded that the constitution did not find its application to the African Americans as they were not considered to be citizens during the drafting of the constitution. New laws were mandatory after the civil war for purposes of extending former slaves civil liberties. How the Court Decisi ons Affected the Society after the Ruling Reed v Reed was the initial U.S Supreme Court ruling that concluded that laws subjective to gender discrimination were violating the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. Decades after the case ruling, the court utilized the precedence set in the ruling to make rulings eliminating discriminatory laws against women. On the other hand, the ruling also benefitted men as it prevented courts from basing their views on gender generalizations. The constitution’s Thirteenth Amendment was enacted for purposes of making the involuntary servitude and slavery unlawful acts. Moreover, the power to enact laws was handed to the Congress which necessitated the new amendments enforcement. Both the cases had a positive impact in the society. For instance, the women

Organisational Behaviour Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Organisational Behaviour - Coursework Example Siemens adopts the following organizational structure and culture as compared to other organization. Divisional structure-it configures the organization and breaks down the organization into various divisions which are self-contained. In order to increase the flexibility within an organization, employees responsible for a certain type of products are placed in divisional structure (Argyris C. , 2005). The company adopts this divisional structure since it delegates authority to each group which in turn increases the morale of the employees. There is also more flexibility in coordinating various divisions  thus  leading to efficiency especially when there is change in the market. Matrix structure- this type of structure groups the employees by both the product and the functions. It focuses on the use of teams so as to complete certain work. Since Siemens Company produces different products, it allows different departments to share information more easily and also allows specializat ion that can increase knowledge in a certain segment. Hierarchy-Community Phenotype Model of Organizational Structure-unlike other organizations, Siemens confers to its employees a sense of belonging where everyone is made to be part of the organization. With the evolution of technology and dynamism in the market, firms do not just exist to make only profits, but it also has some other responsibilities to the community and other stakeholders. This phenotype structure combines both informal and formal hierarchal society participation therefore viewing an organization as influencing and also being influenced by the environment (Argyris C. a., 2009). The relationship between an organization’s structure and culture and its impact on the performance of the organization Organizational structure and culture depends on how different activities are allocated, coordinated and supervised. It also determines on how an organization performs and operates its duties. Good organizational str ucture delegates authority to employees and improves employees’ efficiency and morale. Organizational culture outlines the way in which employees interact with one another and the way tasks are to be done within the organization. The cultural paradigm of Siemens consists of several values, beliefs, rituals and symbols that direct the operating styles of the employees within the organization. As in the structure and culture adopted by Siemens Company, collaborative structure offers a decentralized workforce with incorporates different units to work together for achievement of the intended objectives Organizational structure and culture have different impacts on the motivational level and performance of employees within the organization (Bennis, 2002). In most cases, employees put more efforts to achieve the goals of the organization if they consider themselves as part of the organizational structure and culture. Diverse cultures and structure operating within a company can hav e an effect on the way employees are performing their duties. Effective organizational culture enhances clear and open communication which in turn increases the organizational effectiveness. Great organization culture allows knowledge sharing within the organization which improves personal development of employees therefore

Theory and Practice of Leadership Research Paper

Theory and Practice of Leadership - Research Paper Example Thus, the managers require identifying the leadership approaches which can help in the integration of marketing activities and also help the employees in achieving their personal and professional goals. Leadership has been defined â€Å"essentially contested concept† (Godwin, Neck & Houghton, 2000, p.161). The concept has been regarded very different from management and not for the reasons employee think but because of its exotic and charismatic traits. Traditional theorist regarded leadership as integrated approach which laid emphasis on team work and had the ability to influence its followers. Traditionally, the relationship between employer and employee resembled almost to man servant relationship which has been replaced by superior subordinate relationship. The leadership theories occurred in various groups which helped in the emergence of various innovative ideas and also in the improvement of the existing features. A high quality relationship between the employer and emp loyee is actually a result of the dyadic approach between the leaders and subordinates. The dynamic relationship between the management and subordinates would lead to positive interactions between the employers and employees. Innovativeness is closely related to leadership as it is regarded as the key goal of the organization. It helps in the accomplishment of goals and objectives through proper and innovative methods and has a positive impact on the organizational performance. As per traditional theorists leadership helps in creation of a congenial organizational climate. There are various facets of leadership theories and one of them is the leader member followership relationship which helps in constructing problem solving solutions. These also help in enhancement of follower efficacy and in inculcating innovativeness among the organizational members. Situational Leadership Although, several theorists introduced the concept of leadership and various other leadership styles, situat ional leadership was the first theory which focused on the effectiveness of leadership style. Presently, no theorist believes that there is a singular leadership theory which can contribute effectively in managing various situational crises. Several situational theories were developed to highlight the leadership style which is apt for every manager under various managerial circumstances. These situational theories are highly dependent upon factors like the particular situation, task, people, environmental variables and organization. Fiedler had proposed a situational theory which proposed that there is no singular way of handling particular situation (Bolen, 2004). He proposed that a particular leadership style should be selected as per the managerial situation (Bolen, 2004).A distinction should be made between the task and relationship oriented managers. Task oriented manager’s lays emphasis on the present tasks in hand than on the enhancement of the leader member relationsh ip. These kind of managers focus on the organizational structure, task delegated to the members and the position and power of the employees. Relationship oriented managers excel in most of the situations and their managerial style resembles participative style of leadership. According to theorists Hersey

VG Jones e-commerce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

VG Jones e-commerce - Essay Example While this method of doing business seems au courant, e-commerce relies on time-tested methods of smart, ethical business practises to realise profits. VG Jones can leverage its existing business experience as it expands into this new arena. Two of the biggest and most successful retailers online are Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble. Amazon.com is the world’s largest online retailer, offering everything from the latest bestselling novels to garden gadgetry. It â€Å"exists† only online and as such is known as a â€Å"pure play† operation. Barnes & Noble is the largest bookseller in the United States, with many large high street shops known as â€Å"superstores† as well as a significant online operation, though none in the UK. Both companies have simply found new channels through which to earn profits and offer significant lessons for VG Jones as it seeks to expand its presence onto the web. Both websites are examined in detail for lessons that VG Jones can use in its web planning process. As the company ventures into an expanded web presence, the following recommendations can help provide guidance: 1. Make sure the existing business model is a good one. 2. Create a distinctive presence as a UK retailer. 3. Make the online experience enjoyable and informative. 4. Take advantage of â€Å"buzzworthy† events. 5. Make the website work for the high street shops and vice versa.

Piracy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Piracy - Essay Example Practicing piracy may bankrupt a business and may causes human lives thus it should not be supported. Piracy may cause the business go bankrupt. In the study of Gopal and Gupta (p 1946), they stated that piracy had accounted for a yearly $40 billion revenue losses in software products alone. When this practice of piracy continues, time will come the branded software industry may loss its business. People may not patronize the original software products since counterfeited products may be offered at a lesser price. With the worldwide crisis, the presence of counterfeited products may suit the budget of the customers. In a Billboard news report, Tony Fernandez, Chairman of the local music industry in Malaysia gave a warning that the music industry might be destroyed for the next twelve months by piracy. He further noted that major departments in the country had closed as a result. He explained that business is impossible to continue and flourish if they stay to â€Å"bleed† (Pat rick, p 47) as a result of decrease in sale of their legal products. In the sector of online infringement, piracy as a result of file sharing had in turn affected the sale of CD’s to decrease.

BRIC Economies and Its Implications in Organizations Essay

BRIC Economies and Its Implications in Organizations - Essay Example In 2010 South Africa was also included in this group and the acronym is now known as BRICS. It has captured major attention of political leaders, scientists and also the economists (California State Assembly, 2010). The BRICS nations are growing rapidly with a systematic growth embracing the global capitalism (Global, n.d). They are predicted to be the forefront of the world’s most progresses economies. China is now considered to be the second largest economy in the world in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP). Although the per capita income of people living in developed countries is more than that of the BRIC countries but still there is considerable rise in the income of the middle income group people in such countries. Since the government of such nations is actively incorporating growth stabilizing policies, it is believed that India and China will soon emerge as the leading supplier of manufactured services and goods while Russia and Brazil may be the major suppliers o f raw inputs (Academia, 2013). In the above graph the dark green bars denote the income of the BRIC countries and the light green bars indicates the income of the G 6 countries in terms of GDP. The income level of all the countries in the world will increase with a growth of the world economy. Till 2020 it is observed that the income of BRIC nations is less than half compared to that of the G6. The estimation from 2020 afterwards shows that the BRIC economies surpass half the income of that of the G 6 countries. Finally by 2040 the income of BRIC countries will be more than that of the G 6 nations (CIA, 2013).... The Five BRICS Brazil being independent in 1822 is now considered to be the most populous country in South America. It is perusing both industrial as well as agricultural growth and is now well known for its growing development within its boundaries. Brazil has become a strong economy in recent years exploiting its large natural resources and substantial labor force to work. There are still some problems like high inequality of income and hence a very excessive amount of corruption still now persists in this country. Brazil is expanding its world markets in sectors like agriculture, mining, service as well as manufacturing etc. The nation has also achieved a macroeconomic stability and has been successful to raise its foreign exchange reserves. Although Brazil has grown rapidly in 2007 to 2008 and has become a global creditor but still the recent economic recession has hit Brazil. Recession has touched Brazilian economy in two quarters. But it soon recovered its economic growth and h as now gained the confidence of investors. In 2010 the GDP of Brazil experienced 7.5% growth, which is considered to be the highest in the last 25 years. The high level of income inequality in Brazil has declined in the last 14 years. The high interest rate of the country has involved in large amount of capital inflows and hence appreciated the economy. This has however disturbed the domestic manufacturing and compelled the government to intervene in the matters related to foreign exchange markets and has also lead to rise in taxes of the capital inflows from foreign countries. India is also considered as a member of BRIC, it terms of nominal GDP it is the ninth largest country in the world and

Social Security and Other Government Benefits Term Paper

Social Security and Other Government Benefits - Term Paper Example The generations to come also runs the risk of missing out on the opportunities of receiving government aids and benefits in the form of social security and Medicare as they turn older. This fact makes it even more important for the government to fix its spending issues and figure out a way for future generations to have the same benefits as those before them did. The hypothesis is that the fiscal policy reform in the US is possible so as to keep social benefit level unaltered and move towards recovery of the federal budget deficit. The contents of this paper evaluates the validity of this hypothesis and establishes the possible alternative that might be followed for a more comprehensive reform in the US economy while accommodating policy changes for amending the gigantic federal debt. Study methodology The study has been conducted by making secondary research on the topic. Studies have been made on resources available from print and online media, such as newspapers, books, journals a nd online articles. Qualitative method of data analysis has been followed to reach the conclusion. Finally, strict adherence to personal timeline has helped in completing the research successfully. Narrative The new budget plan made by the Obama government has announced to make a change â€Å"in the way in which the annual cost of living adjustments for Social Security and other federal programs are calculated† (CNN, 2013). This shift from the current inflation measure to the chained CPI process is expected to reduce the debt of the Federal Government by US $230 billion. However, this policy also implies that the increment in the Social Security payments made to the senior citizens every year would be lesser than before. However, there are funds allocated for programs meant for benefitting the section of population that are in poverty or very close to it. Some of such programmes are the Supplemental Security Income. These programmes are exempted from the change in COLA calcul ations using chained CPI (CNN, 2013). In the initial years, the growth in Social Security benefit checks would be reduced by only a small amount. For an average retired worker the Social Security benefit in the first year would range between $38 and $45 (CNN, 2013). This range would however increase over time, and would amount to many hundred dollars. The debate on social security Social Security in the USA is funded from the revenue generated from the Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax (FICA), which is a kind of payroll tax (Whittington & Delaney, 2008). Both employees and employers make contributions for the FICA. Workers covered under this regulation receive retirement benefits along with Medicare facilities (disability benefits for people aged below 65 years as well as selected health benefits and disability benefits for people above 65 years of age) (SSA, 2013a). In case of demise of any worker covered under this scheme, the spouse of that person and children are eligible to obtain survivors' benefits. However, the payments made on the social security accounts are not directly invested on the tax payers. The total receipts are used for making payments for the total number of

The Warren Court Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Warren Court - Term Paper Example But he was not what people assumed him to be. He changed a lot of things in his court. The remedial power of law was one of the things Earl Warren really believed in and he enforced this idea further as well. The center of attention of court was transferred to personal rights from property rights and great importance was given to ethical values as well as legal issues. The Warren court worked really hard for the civil rights of people. It strongly supported the Bill of Rights as well. The decisions made by the Warren Court brought about many vital changes in the society all over. The decisions mainly covered the issues like one-man, one vote; desegregation and the decisions made in the criminal courts. The Warren Court was considered to be too lenient towards the accused and was hindering the work of the police by doing this. The law enforcement agencies have been among the more influential groups engaged in criticizing the Warren Court (Lytle 1968). Before the Warren Court there wer e not very clear and strong rights given to the accused for his or her defense. They were also hesitant to give the accused constitutional rights. The right of the defendant to get a lawyer who is granted to him or her by the government was introduced in the Warren Court. The decisions which were made in the Warren Courts regarding various issues were undisputed while others were made through split court. The Warren Court mainly focused upon the constitutional regulation of criminal procedure instead of substantive criminal law. Some of the people argue that the efforts made by the chief justice Earl Warren to bring improvements to the criminal justice system are ambiguous and not certain. Chief justice Earl Warren brought about some primary changes in the criminal justice system. During its last eight years the Warren Court revolutionized criminal procedures, taking the lead in the development of American law in the twentieth century (Belknap & Warren 2004). It is also considered b y some to have brought about a criminal law revolution but on the other hand some think that it is barely and evolution in regard to the civil rights of the defendant. However, there is no doubt that the changes in criminal law system made in Warren Court have changed the way the criminal administration worked in United States permanently. In the Bill of Rights there were amendments that protected the rights of the defendant. The fourth amendment stated that the criminal defendant could not be arrested unlawfully and that legal court notice is required in order to search or seize the accused. According to the Fifth Amendment in the Bill of Rights the defendant was guaranteed the advantage against the self-incrimination. Last but not the least; in the sixth amendment the accused was given the right to a fast trial, compulsory process for witness and the right to a counsel for his defense. These amendments give rights to the criminal defendant and to further support these rights certa in rules were made like for example the accused have to be brought in front of the judicial officer as soon as he is arrested. The Warren Court expanded the right to counsel by ruling that criminal defendants charged with felonies in state courts do have fundamental right to an attorney even if they

Children and Young People Behaviour Essay Example for Free

Children and Young People Behaviour Essay Describe the benefits of encouraging and rewarding children’s positive behaviour. It is a necessity for a care provider to reward positive behaviour as positive reinforcement is vital for a child’s development. If you only punish a child for negative behaviour and not rewarding positive behaviour as well it will make the child develop a distort view of cause and affect, leaving them unsure of what is positive behaviour. This will then lead onto the child acting in a negative way in order to receive attention as it’s the only way they know how to get attention. Encouraging and rewarding positive behaviour balances out this problem and makes children want to try and receive positive rewards. The child will learn that doing something good will give them the right attention that they deserve and less likely to act out in a negative way for attention. Rewarding a child for their good behaviour encourages them to want to try new things so that they can receive even more praise therefore giving them more confidence and self-esteem. The confidence to try new things allows the child to learn new things and develop in many different ways. Care givers should be aware that not all rewards have to be big and a simple high five and a smile or a sticker will encourage a child to maintain good behaviour. For example if a child is learning how to write the letters, saying â€Å"well done† and giving the child after each attempt will make them want to keep trying until the can write the letter correctly. Describe behaviour problems that children and young children may display at different ages and that should be referred to others. Whom should these be referred to? Young children may develop a number of different â€Å"behaviour problems† during their development. A common behaviour problem is biting which normally starts around the age of 18 months. Although it may seem as if the child is being aggressive it is important for care providers to remember that it is a form of exploration, children use their mouths to explore as it is one of the most developed parts of their bodies. Infants don’t have self-control at this young age so they could bite someone when they feel excited or even for no reason and because they see something close that they can bite. When this trait continues when the child is a toddler it is still out of frustration, if a child is unable to communicate using their words they get frustrated not being able to get their message across therefore bite instead. Care providers should speak together with the child’s parents or guardian in rder to devise a plan of action on how to handle the situation. However if the situation is still a behaviour problem for a child who is over the age of 3 years it will be taken more seriously as the main causes for biting are no self-control and lack of communication but at this age most children have both of these qualities so their reason for biting may be different such as attention seeking. Further help may need to be asked for by a specialist in behaviour management in order to find a speci fic solution for the behaviour problem. Temper tantrums occur for most toddlers. The reason that temper tantrums are used as the child gets frustrated that they can’t control their environment around them and the actions of others. For example if a child asks to go and play outside but the care providers at their nursery tells them no they would throw themselves on the floor and shout, the beginning of their tantrum. Language has not fully developed for toddlers so they may not understand why they may not be allowed to do what they wish. It has been shown through studying young children that a high percentage of children will snatch toys, push other children over or fight with other children. They may not have reached the stage in their development when they understand some things are theirs, some things belong to others and some things are shared between children (for example nursery toys) At the age of 5 years this is when a child would transition into school. This may be due to separation anxiety or having to interact with people they are not familiar with. Trouble adapting to their new environment could cause behaviour problems such as not wanting to operate with the new rules in their school. However at the age of 5 language is much more developed and parents can explain to the child and reassure them to make them feel more comfortable and get used to their new environment. Although they have come very far in their development by this age there are still more things for a child to achieve from the age of five years. This can result in the child becoming very frustrated with themselves if they can’t do something â€Å"perfectly† as they may not get the results they want when completing a task such as drawing a picture of their parents. At the age of five years the child may also try to test limits as they are exploring their independence. This will be shown through talking about or simple not listening to instructions when told to do something. Whining and tantrums are also sometimes still common at this age as the child has only recently left pre-school and have not developed enough to understand that there are other ways of expressing themselves. In order to resolve this behaviour problem it is down to the school to keep reminding the child what is expected of them and try to encourage and reward positiove behaviour. Talking to parents is key as you can work together to try and resolve a problem that may only be temporary due to the child’s age. It is important for both parents and child providers to remember tat what may seem like disobedience may simple be a lack or language or lack of attention and most cases of â€Å"disruptive behaviour† will be grown out of as the child develops in all aspects. For example a child of two and a half years has not developed many communication skills so growls at the other children in the pre school instead of talking. Although this behaviour is unacceptable the child should simple be spoken explaining that its not nice and focus on the underlying problem which is the speech elay and try to encourage the speech instead. If through the helkp of the care providers at the pre school and the parents can’t speed along the speech then a speech and language specialist may be needed in order to help the child.